Metaphysics: David Hume: Causation, Necessary Connection

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Metaphysics: David Hume's Problem of Causation & Necessary Connection

It appears that, in single instances of the operation of bodies, we never can, by our utmost scrutiny, discover any thing but one event following another, without being able to comprehend any force or power by which the cause operates, or any connexion between it and its supposed effect. The same difficulty occurs in contemplating the operations of mind on body - where we observe the motion of the latter to follow upon the volition of the former, but are not able to observe or conceive the tie which binds together the motion and volition, or the energy by which the mind produces this effect. The authority of the will over its own faculties and ideas is not a whit more comprehensible: So that, upon the whole, there appears not, throughout all nature, any one instance of connexion which is conceivable by us. All events seem entirely loose and separate. One event follows another; but we never can observe any tie between them. They seemed conjoined, but never connected. And as we can have no idea of any thing which never appeared to our outward sense or inward sentiment, the necessary conclusion seems to be that we have no idea of connexion or force at all, and that these words are absolutely without meaning, when employed either in philosophical reasonings or common life. (David Hume, 1737)

Introduction to Metaphysics of David Hume
The philosopher David Hume (1711-76) is famous for making us realize that we do not know the 'Necessary Connexion' between objects and thus do not know the relationship between cause and effect. This quite simply is the Problem of Causation - that until we know 'what exists' and the 'necessary connexions' between these things that exist, then it is impossible for Humanity to have certainty of knowledge.

This then leads to the further Problem of Induction, for if we do not know the a priori cause of events then we have no Principles from which to logically deduce our conclusions. We are left simply observing that one event follows another and seems connected, but we do not know how or why, thus we must depend upon repeated observation (Induction) to determine the Laws of Nature (the current state of Modern Physics) and hence tacitly assuming (without reason) that the future is like the past. (It is simply a habit of thinking to connect two events which seem to occur in conjunction and necessarily assumes that the future will be like the past).

Hume's Problem of Causation has remained unsolved for 250 years (Neither Immanuel Kant nor Karl Popper positively solved it) and this lack of certainty, at the very heart of human scientific knowledge, has greatly prejudiced our belief in the possibility of Metaphysics and the certainty of Science, and has ultimately led to the extreme skepticism (Postmodernism) of our currently troubled and confused times.
As a fine philosopher though, David Hume kept an open mind, which is necessary if we are to ever consider new ideas and thus advance Human knowledge.

I cannot find, I cannot imagine any such reasoning. But I keep my mind still open to instruction, if any one will vouchsafe to bestow it upon me. (David Hume, 1737)
I must confess that a man is guilty of unpardonable arrogance who concludes, because an argument has escaped his own investigation, that therefore it does not really exist. I must also confess that, though all the learned, for several ages, should have employed themselves in fruitless search upon any subject, it may still, perhaps, be rash to conclude positively that the subject must, therefore, pass all human comprehension. (David Hume, 1737)

The Metaphysics of Space and the Wave Structure of Matter Solves Hume's Problem of Causation and Necessary Connection
Hume's Problem of Causation and Necessary Connection, can only be solved by understanding how Matter exists and is interconnected within this Space of the Universe.
Hume agrees that there obviously is a 'necessary connexion' between objects (Matter) in Space. This is obvious by the fact that Physics is able to describe many events with mathematical precision. Thus if we had knowledge of this 'secret connexion' or Force we could accurately predict (logically deduce) the future (from cause to effect) without need of induction from repeated observation and thus having to assume the future is like the past.

It is universally allowed that matter, in all its operations, is actuated by a necessary force, and that every natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of its cause that no other effect, in such particular circumstances, could possibly have resulted from it. (David Hume, 1737)
The generality of mankind never find any difficulty in accounting for the more common and familiar operations of nature - such as the descent of heavy bodies, the growth of plants, the generation of animals, or the nourishment of bodies by food: But suppose that, in all these cases, they perceive the very force or energy of the cause, by which it is connected with its effect, and is for ever infallible in its operation. (David Hume, 1737)
From the first appearance of an object, we never can conjecture what effect will result from it. But were the power or energy of any cause discoverable by the mind, we could foresee the effect, even without experience; and might, at first, pronounce with certainty concerning it, by mere dint of thought and reasoning. (David Hume, 1737)
Now it seems evident that, if this conclusion were formed by reason, it would be as perfect at first, and upon one instance, as after ever so long a course of experience. (David Hume, 1737)
This question I propose as much for the sake of information, as with an intention of raising difficulties. I cannot find, I cannot imagine any such reasoning. But I keep my mind still open to instruction, if any one will vouchsafe to bestow it upon me. (David Hume, 1737)

The solution to Hume's Problem of Causation is realised by understanding how Matter exists in Space as a Spherical Standing Wave whose Wave-Center (Focal Point) creates the 'Particle' effect of Matter. By understanding the cause of the 'Particle' effect, the Wave Structure of Matter explains how these matter 'particles' are necessarily interconnected by their spherical waves in a continuously connected Space (existing as a wave medium). We can thus logically deduce the Motion of the Focal Point ('Particle') by simply considering how the Velocity of the Spherical In-Wave changes as they flow in through other matter in the Space around them. This then necessarily determines where these Spherical In-Waves will meet at their Wave-Center 'particle' thus we can determine the future motion of the 'Particle' effect. A simple example of this is to consider gravity, and Hume's simple problem of why a stone falls to the earth;

Would we, therefore, form a just and precise idea of necessity, we must consider whence that idea arises when we apply it to the operation of bodies. ... A stone or piece of metal raised into the air, and left without any support, immediately falls: but to consider the matter a priori, is there anything we discover in this situation which can beget the idea of a downward, rather than an upward, or any other motion, in the stone of metal?
(David Hume, 1737)

Firstly, we must realise that the stone exists as many trillions of Spherical (Ellipsoidal) Standing Waves whose Wave-Centers / Focal Points are trapped resonating together in the Space that we call the Matter of the stone. Thus the reason why the stone falls to the Earth is simply because the Spherical (Ellipsoidal) In-Waves travel more slowly through the higher Wave-Density Space that we call the matter of Earth than they do in the opposite direction from Space through the Earth's atmosphere. This causes the Focal Point (where the Spherical In-Waves meet at their Wave-Center) to move (accelerate) towards the earth - which we see as the stone falling. Thus as Hume demanded, we have replaced Inductive Logic from repeated observation of effects with Deductive Logic from the Principles of the WSM, which explain matter's necessary connection by explaining the cause of the 'Particle' effect.

David Hume's 'Problem of Induction'
For the most part, attempts to solve the problem of induction have taken the form of trying to fit inductive arguments into a deductive mould. (Ayer, 1956)



Finally, why does Induction work, why is the future like the past? (And it is obvious that it is else all our science would be nonsense.)

Without True Knowledge of Reality it is impossible to understand cause and effect - we are simply limited to describing the effects of things upon us, without understanding the cause of these effects. As we did not know how matter interacted with other matter in the Space around it (action-at-a-distance) we consequently did not understood how our human senses were connected to the world of objects in Space around us and thus what caused the perceived effects of our senses.

This lack of knowledge then leads to (what Popper termed) Hume's 'Problem of Induction'. This problem can again be demonstrated using Hume's simple example of dropping a stone such that when I let go of the stone it falls to earth. I can then repeat this experiment any number of times but despite this number of repetitions does this logically (inductively) infer that the stone must fall the next time I let it go. Hume argued that it does not, that it is simply a habit of thinking and that it is quite possible that at some stage in the future the stone will not fall. This leads to the realization that the logic of induction depends upon repeated observation and thus the assumption that the future is like the past. As Hume explains;

The supposition that the future resembles the past, is not founded on arguments of any kind, but is derived entirely from habit. (David Hume, 1737)



Thus Hume's skepticism is valid and has subsequently plagued Philosophy and the sciences with a terribly destructive doubt and a fertile environment for all kinds of absurdity and mysticism. Ultimately all science depends upon observation of the world for its knowledge, and thus Hume's problem of induction must be solved if we are to have certainty of knowledge. As Ayer explains of the philosophical skeptic;

... his contention is that any inference from past to future is illegitimate ... that it is to be doubted whether the exercise of sense-perception can in any circumstances whatever afford proof of the existence of physical objects. (Ayer, 1956)

The solution to this profound problem is simple and in two parts;
i) Once we understand reality, then we understand the cause of the effect. Thus we no longer depend upon repeated observation to inductively deduce that the stone falls when I let it go, for we can now use deductive logic from first principles to deduce that the stone falls to the earth because its In-Waves are traveling more slowly through the Space of the Earth.
ii) We can also explain why the future is like the past because the In-Waves (our future) after flowing through the Wave-Center (our present) become the Out-Waves (our past) and thus the future causes the past and must therefore be like the past. This then explains why we can trust inductive reasoning, for its assumption that the future is like the past is valid, and this also then explains why science has been so successful even though it was founded on an inductive logic whose validity until now could not be shown to be true.

Now the skeptic can still argue that while I may have replaced induction with deduction, nonetheless I still depend upon induction, i.e. upon repeated observation of events, to confirm the truth of the deductive theory.
This is true, but I then can justify this use of induction to support deduction, by showing that this wave theory of matter explains why the future is similar to the past, and therefore deduce that induction is valid.


http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-David-Hume-Philosopher.htm